Dutch philosopher of
Jewish origin, Benedict de Spinoza (1632-1677) remain one of the most
compelling if not the difficult philosophers of the Rationalist school. Greatly
influenced by Rene Descartes and Euclid, he takes rationalism to its logical
extremes, determining to set out the principles of an ethical system in
axiomatic format, mush as Euclid proved his theorems of geometry. Spinoza’s ambitious
project is perhaps one of the greatest ever undertaken in philosophy and it is
a mark of his greatness that, to a considerable extent, he was remarkably
successful in this undertaking.
In the posthumously
published Ethica ordine geometrico demonstrate
(Ethics demonstrated in geometrical order), Spinoza sets out the axioms which he
takes to be self-evident and then proceeds, step by step, to deduce ethical
conclusions. Like Descartes, he is concerned to set knowledge on logical
foundations: his ethical conclusions must
therefore first be founded on a number of ontological, metaphysical and
epistemic beliefs. Each of these is, in turn, demonstrated in geometric
fashion.
Central to Spinoza’s
philosophy is the idea, similar to that of Parmenides of Elea, that everything in the universe is One. There is
only one substance and that substance we can conceive as of either Nature or
God. This substance has infinitely many attributes but human beings, being
finite, can only perceive two of them, extension and thought. Unlike Descartes,
who thought mind and body were two separate kinds of thing, Spinoza argues that
mind and body are just different ways of conceiving the same reality.
This reality, Nature of
God, is wholly self-contained, self-causing and self-sufficient. Everything in
the universe is part of God, and everything that happens is a necessary part of
expression of the divine nature. The upshot of this pantheistic view is to
remove free will from the realm of human actions. After all, if human beings
are part of the divine reality there is no room for independent causal actions.
Spinoza is more than happy with this conclusion, he is a thorough-going
determinist: “Experience tells us clearly
that men believe themselves to be free simply because they are conscious of
their actions and unconscious of the causes whereby these actions are
determined; further, it is plain that the dictates of the mind are simply
another name for the appetites that vary according to the varying state of the
body.”
Nevertheless, Spinoza does
find a way of making room for a kind of freedom, though it is not of the sort
that philosophers are used to. Each individual, says Spinoza, is a localised
concentration of the attributes of reality, really a quasi-individual, since
the only true individual is the universe in totality. Insofar as the
quasi-individual is ruled by his emotions, he is unfree and at the mercy of
finite understanding. To become free, the individual must, by means of rational
reflection, understand the extended causal chain that links everything as one. To
become aware of the totality of the universe is to be freed, not from causal
determinism, but from an ignorance of one’s true nature.
What then, of wickedness,
sin and evil?
Since everything is part
of one reality there is no such thing as evil from the viewpoint of the whole –
“sub specie aeternitis” (from the aspect of eternity). That which appears evil
does so only because we lack the understanding to see the bigger picture, the
chain of causes that make all events a necessary part of divine reality. Though
many were shocked by this in Spinoza’s day, it reflects the same sentiment
expressed by some Christians who persevere in the face of adversity by claiming
that “God moves in mysterious ways”
and “ours is not to reason why.” Of
course, for Spinoza, to reason why is exactly what we must do to attain
freedom.
Interestingly, Spinoza’s
philosophy is both mystical, rational and theistic. Yet he was excommunicated
from the Jewish community for his views, denounced as an atheist by Christians and
declared so wicked that at one time his books were publicly burnt. Despite the
rigour and integrity of his work, Spinoza remains one of the lesser studied and
least regarded of all the rationalist philosophers.
[Summarized from Philosophy 100 Essential Thinkers by
Philip Stokes, 2012.]
Lord, Give
Us Today Our Daily Idea(s)
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